World Prehistory: Class 16
Eastern chiefdoms: Poverty Point, Hopewell, Mississippian
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Copyright Bruce Owen 2000
This time we'll look at the eastern half or so of North America
mostly small-scale, somewhat mobile societies
mostly foragers, with some agriculture at certain times and places
relatively simple social and economic organization
analogous to African and European Mesolithic and early Neolithic
but there were exceptions
with larger, more permanent settlements
more powerful leaders with influence over larger areas
more economic specialization and exchange
some with monumental architecture
we will focus on these more complex societies
background: Late Archaic period
some plants domesticated as early as 2500 BC (squash/gourd; goosefoot, marsh elder, sunflower)
widely used by 1500 BC in the midwest and southeast of US
but still just part of a largely foraging diet
increasing use of stone grinding and pounding tools
suggesting reduced mobility
and increasing dependence on seed plants (i.e. agriculture)
appearance of crude ceramics with fiber temper
more food storage pits
also suggests increasingly long stays at particular sites
maybe due to rising populations
making more of the landscape "claimed"
and making the increased productivity of agriculture more attractive
by 2000 BC, some people were buried with some stone beads, sea shell ornaments, native copper ornaments, sometimes sprinkled with red ochre
suggesting some social status differences, but not very marked
First case: Poverty Point
Louisiana, on a tributary to the Mississippi river
late Archaic period (1200 - 700 BC)
famous for very early monumental earthworks
so far, Poverty Point and the sites in the immediate vicinity appear to be unique for the time
the rest of North America was not building anything comparable
and presumably did not have a similar organization capable of mobilizing the necessary labor
6 concentric sets of narrow mounds, forming an octagon or circle
half is eroded away, but the assumption is that it was once complete
1.3 km in diameter (about 3/4 mile)
ridges about 2 m (6 ft) high, 24 m (80 ft) wide
postholes on top suggest wooden structures
hearths and pits suggest residential use (!)
flat central area was apparently also residential
perhaps several hundred houses, total
Big mound, 20 m (66 ft) high, 200 m (655 ft) long just to west of ring mounds
with a ramp down the side towards the rings
aligned with center of rings to view equinoxes (maybe accidental?)
equinox is the day half-way between the solstices (extremes) of summer and winter
the day when day and night are equally long
several other mounds within a few kilometers
all apparently built up from "basketloads" of soil
some mounds may have been for burials?
several other contemporary sites known, but without the big earthworks
lots of ornamental or ritual stone objects made at Poverty Point
beads, pendants, "effigies" (ornaments shaped like birds, etc.)
material virtually all imported
flint, chert, jasper
slate
hematite
galena
stone and clay pipes for smoking tobacco
different sites apparently specialized in making different kinds of stone artifacts
suggests a lot of exchange to spread them around
economic and social context
increasing sedentism
increasing dependence on agriculture
although foraged foods were still dominant
lots of fired clay "boiling stones"
since rocks are scarce in the Mississippi alluvium
presumably some kind of chiefdom...?
Early and Middle Woodland Period (800 BC - 800 AD)
significant rise in population in Eastern North America
large villages emerged
increase in interregional exchange
maize introduced from the Southwest around 100 AD, but did not immediately become important
Two major mound-building cultures, partially overlapping in both time and space
Adena
earlier, mostly 500 BC - 700 AD
centered on southern Ohio
Hopewell
later, 200 BC - 600 AD (1 AD - 750 AD in Wenke)
overlapping with Adena area, but also much more extensive, into Mississippi river drainage and up to lake Ontario
Adena 700 BC - 700 AD
Ohio river valley
after the decline of Poverty Point, ancestral to Hopewell and contemporary with it
still mostly foragers, with a little cultivation
seasonally mobile
cultivated plants included tobacco, a strong psychoactive variety
Burial mounds with rich burials
body (or up to 3 bodies) in a log structure or a pit
limited quantity of fancy goods
stone tools, ornaments
jasper, slate, greenstone
gorgets
decorated tablets
tubular tobacco pipes
hammered native copper
axes, bracelets, beads
marine shell (imported from Gulf of Mexico)
often cremated
mound built over the structure
apparently built up over a long time
with modest additional material being added at frequent intervals, like seasonal visits
this suggests that the mounds were meeting places for exchange, ceremonies, socializing
very rich burials sometimes are of infants or juveniles, suggesting inherited status
also mound enclosures
circular, square, pentagonal
apparently ritual, not defensive
also "effigy" mounds (forming an animal or other shape from above)
like Serpent Mound
poor, friable pottery
settlements were apparently temporary or only semipermanent
with circular structures of poles covered with hides
circular possible ceremonial structures
Hopewell 200 BC - 600 AD (1 AD - 750 AD?)
the "Hopewell Interaction Sphere"
many local cultures sharing goods, concepts, artistic motifs, burial practices, etc. through active trading
like a "horizon"
burials in mounds, much richer than Adena ones
suggest strong social status differentiation
still sometimes contain an infant or juvenile
fancy offerings, often imported materials
native copper
earspools, gorgets, beads, pendants, panpipes
breastplates
axes, adzes, celts, awls
silver, meteoric iron
carved sculptural pipestone pipes
usually with an animal or human figure on a rectangular base
mica
sheets cut into hands, heads, bird claws, snakes, swastikas
obsidian, quartz crystals
marine shell, tortoise shell
shark, alligator, bear teeth
similar goods found in residential areas suggest that they were actually used, not made just for burial
probably used in ceremonial activities
human sacrifices
effigy mounds as well as burial mounds
some mound complexes lacked residential occupation, others had residences both among the mounds and in the surrounding areas
Site of Hopewell
45 hectares
38 burial mounds
one huge, 9 m (30 ft) high, 152 m (500 ft) long, 55 m (180 ft) wide
As wide as both wings of Stevenson, half again as long, and close to three stories tall
contained over 250 burials
and caches of offerings
Mound City
24 mounds in an enclosure
social and economic context
still mostly foraging, some maize and other cultivation
the Hopewell area in the Mississippi drainage was extremely rich for foragers, probably sustained the population easily without much agriculture
settlements still seem only semi-permanent, small, showing little specialization
large, planned complexes of earthworks suggest supervision and control
exotic materials in burials (and presumably in use) indicate extensive exchange networks
from the Gulf coast to the Great Lakes to Montana
suggestion that pipes were "peace pipes", integral to exchange and high status through diplomacy
mound building, regional exchange, fancy burials started tapering off around 400 AD
increased competition limited travel and exchange?
Mississippian 800-1650 AD
after Hopewell interaction faded
Mississippi river drainage, plus much of the rest of the east and midwest
significant shift to maize agriculture
also beans and squash
maybe it was this combination (which provides a complete diet, unlike maize alone) was what made farming really viable
but still a lot of hunting and gathering (including fishing)
no need for irrigation works; swidden (slash and burn) agriculture
related changes:
a lot more storage pits
more stone hoes
rapid rise in population
clear, extreme status differences in burials
massive mobilization of labor for mound construction
apparent replacement of the spearthrower (atlatl) with the bow and arrow from maybe 700 AD to 1000 AD
maybe this increased meat supply?
maybe this increased the level of violence?
initially, many separate chiefdoms
some become larger
first Cahokia, in the north
later Cahokia faded, Moundville, Etowah became large, regionally influential centers in the southeast
Cahokia
Across the river from St. Louis
just below the confluence of the Illinois, Missouri, and Mississippi rivers
area called "The American Bottom"
very rich and varied resources
swamps, ponds, forests, wet grassland
growth of Cahokia
600-800 AD: first agricultural settlements
hamlets of several houses
900 AD: settlement hierarchy had developed
larger settlements had 100-150 people
and several flat-topped mounds
bases for structures, possibly chiefly residences, temples, etc.
often facing a central plaza
many sites had a defensive palisade around the core mounds and plaza(s)
Some small towns were clearly planned, with houses arranged around a central plaza
1050-1250 AD: peak of Cahokia
largest prehistoric ceremonial center north of Mexico
over 100 mounds
settlement and mounds covered 13 to 16 square kilometers
population estimated 30,000 to 40,000
in several large towns, some smaller towns, and over 40 villages
palisaded core with the huge Monk's Mound and 16 other mounds around an open plaza
presumably high-status residences inside the palisade
(which had elaborate baffled entrances)
most people lived outside
Monk's mound
largest mound in North America
30 m (98 ft) high (10 stories!)
316 x 241 m base (1036 x 790 ft)
covered 6.5 hectares
base is larger than the great pyramid at Giza!
over 600,000 cubic meters of fill
built in about 14 episodes over about 200 (300?) years
each time with large wooden structures on top
various different levels and shapes at different times
ramps and/or stairways leading up
part of a complex of many mounds
final, largest version had four levels, wooden structure(s) on top
conical burial mounds
Mound 72
6 burial events over the 100 years leading up to the peak of Cahokia in 1050 AD
at least 261 individuals, about half (118) thought to have been sacrificial offerings
mound enlarged with each burial event
one event involved 50 young women buried in a pit, with 4 young men, headless and handless, on a platform
all apparently sacrificed
another had a presumed chief laid out on 20,000 stone (shell?) beads, with 800 arrowheads, mica, and copper sheet ornaments around him
6 others buried with fancy goods nearby
sacrificed? nobles?
two-level mounds with wooden (ceremonial?) structure on top
elongated "ridgetop marker" mounds
"woodhenges"
large rings of upright posts
possibly used for astronomical observations
lots of imported goods
chert, mica, obsidian, marine shell
excess of scrapers suggests importation of deer hides that were then worked at the site using the scrapers
all this suggests a lot of organization, control, mobilization of labor
presumably a very powerful chief
and it apparently lasted several centuries
Cahokia declined around 1250 AD
mounds abandoned
many people moved out of the American Bottom and to higher surrounding areas
due to competition from other Mississippian centers costing Cahokia its privileged position in trade?
due to degradation of local environment due to too many people living there?
Moundville 1050 AD -
late Mississippian center (like Etowah)
located in the southeast: Alabama
one of several centers that replaced the single center of Cahokia
each probably the center of an alliance of relatively independent chiefdoms
lots of exchange of materials and finished goods with distant centers
since fancy exotic goods were mostly found in high-status burials, at least some trade was probably elite-to-elite across long distances
this inter-elite trade was probably associated with alliances, diplomacy, etc.
The Southern Cult (= the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex)
shared ritual paraphernalia found during the late Mississippian, mostly in the southeast
motifs
hand with eye in palm
sunbursts
"weeping" eye decoration
human skull
polished black shell-tempered ceramics
effigy jars with human faces, sometimes with closed eyes and sewn lips
designs on faces, including "tear lines", may show face paint or tattooing
native copper repousse sheet ornaments
engraved conch shells
possible connection to Mexican ideologies, but still not clear
first occupied 1050 AD
as a one-mound, modest center, one among many
after 1300 AD
as Cahokia declined
grew to 150 hectares
with 20 large mounds roughly around a 30 hectare plaza
and the two biggest ones within the plaza
flat-topped, with wooden structures on top
high-status residences, temples, both?
mounds built in stages over time
the 18 surrounding mounds are in pairs, one large, one small
the small mounds usually have burials
the large don't, were probably residential
these were probably lineage leaders' dwellings and mortuary structures
burials mounds contained:
high status burials
copper axes and gorgets
stone disks
Southern Cult items
shell beads
males, females, and children all in high-status burials
suggests inherited status
simple burials with only a few pots
possibly sacrificed?
or associates buried in privileged places?
NE corner of the site's residential area has more high-status artifacts, probably was the high-status residential sector
ordinary residential areas to W, S, and E of the plaza, further away
charnel houses and a sweat house at the edge of the plaza
total population estimated around 3000
craft workshops in non-residential areas
shell beads and perforators
bone awls and stone awl sharpeners: hide working area?
area with large hearths, shell (temper), clay, etc. probably a ceramic production area
lots of warfare
palisades and ditches around many sites
bodies without heads, isolated heads, scalping
burial with 11 headless skeletons and shells carved with people holding trophy heads
Moundville burial analysis (by Peebles and Kus, in Price and Feinman)
over 3000 burials excavated
7 extremely high status
all male
in large, central mounds
lots of goods
copper axes
copper-clad shell beads
pearl beads
sacrificial victims
110 very high status burials
males and children
mounds and cemeteries near mounds
lots of goods
copper earspools, bear teeth, stone disks, red or white pigment, shell beads, copper gorgets, galena
261 high status burials, in two groups
males, females, children
many "commoner" burials, in several groups
goods apparently depended on age and sex, probably individual achievement
conclusions
profound differences in status
copper axes were signs of top rank
found only at Moundville, not high-status burials in surrounding settlements, so the top chiefs probably lived (or were buried) at Moundville
membership in top strata of society was by birth
while commoners' roles had more to do with age, sex, and personal qualities
1540s
Hernando de Soto's expedition reported chiefs living on platform mounds, temples on platform mounds, walled towns
a well-defined aristocratic class with nearly unlimited power over the rest (translated as "stinkards"), who acquiesced
but nowhere near the scale of Moundville
clearly had already been a drastic decline in status of elites, labor mobilization, size of settlements, etc.
by the time the next Europeans passed through, all these sites were abandoned
and the population decimated by European diseases